Chapter Two
The Age of Absolutism 1600-1715
Revolutions in Thought
The Trial of Galileo
· He was suspected of heresy
· Cardinals of the Roman Catholic were his judges
· Ordered to renounce that “the Sun is the center of the universe and immovable, and that the Earth is not the center of the same…”
· Earlier the Church declared that the idea of a heliocentric universe was absurd
o Pope Paul the fifth ordered Galileo not to teach or defend his theories
· Galileo published Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World which brought him to the Holy Inquisition
· He agreed to recant his views with the threat of being tortured or burned
·
Sentenced to house arrest in
· 1992 – the Catholic Church acknowledged its error; accepted his findings
· Trial showed the growing rifts between authority of the Church and scientific thought
The Scientific Revolution
Astronomy and Physics
· From middle of sixteenth century to beginning of eighteenth century
· Challenged how Europeans saw themselves and the universe
· Central to the revolution was the use of experimentation to develop theories
Nicolaus Copernicus
· One of the first to challenge traditional views of the universe
· Published On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres
· Put forward the idea of a heliocentric universe
o Sun-centered universe; planets revolved around the Sun
· His theory suggested that the Earth rotated on its axis every 24 hours and the Moon revolved around Earth
· Based conclusions on philosophical deductions not astronomical observations
Galileo Galilei
· Gathered evidence to support the ideas of Copernicus
· Showed that motions could be described mathematically
· Formulated principal of inertia – bodies once set in motion tend to stay in motion
· Through his telescope he showed that: the Moon was not perfectly smooth and had a ruff surface with craters and mountains; Jupiter had moons; Sun had spots
· His book Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World supported Copernican view and stated those who opposed it (Jesuits) were simple-minded
o Brought him up with the conservative forces of Catholic Church
Tycho Brahe
· Rejected Copernicus view of heliocentric universe
· Recorded thousands of observations about planets and starts over 20-year period
· Discovered new star (1572) and new comet (1577) – proved Aristotle’s theory of a fixed universe to wrong
Johannes Kepler
· Contemporary of Galileo and once Brahe’s assistant
· Believed Copernicus to be right
· Formulated three universal laws of planetary motion
o Planets move in elliptical orbits, sun at one focus of the ellipses – disproved Galileo’s theory of circular orbits
o As a planet draws closer to the Sun it moves faster in its orbit – disproved notion that the heavenly motion is steady and unchanging
o The square of the ratio of the time it takes any two planets to complete orbit equals the cube of the ratio of these planets’ average distance from the Sun; the size of a planet’s orbit is proportional to the time required for one revolution around the sun
Isaac Newton
· Formulated three laws of motion combining concepts of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler
o If no force acts on an object, it will stay still or maintain constant motion in a straight line
o Every change of motion of acceleration is proportional to the force that caused the change and inversely proportional to the object’s mass
o For every action force, there is an equal reaction force in the opposite direction
A Revolution in
Anatomy
William Harvey
· Not satisfied with divine power as explanation for the workings of the heart
· Published On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals
· Described heart as a pump – not filtration plant
· Discovered in a single hour the heart pumps out more than a person’s mass in blood; thus blood must circulate in the veins
Scientific Method and the Birth of Modern Philosophy
Scientific Method
· The scientific revolution was a new approach to discover the truth
· For centuries the truth was arrived at by relying on long trusted authorities (the Bible) or classical scholars
· Revelation in science arrived at through skepticism, experimentation, reasoning…
Francis Bacon
· Stressed importance of direct observation in finding the truth
· Published Novum Organum – attempt at replacing Aristotle’s Organum
· Believed knowledge is the basis of power, and allows human control of nature
Rene Descartes
· Didn’t believe we can rely solely on our senses for search of truth –senses can be tricked
· We can only be certain of one thing; that we exist – “I think, therefore I am”
· All other truths are based on mental perception
· The mind is essential, what we experience is secondary
· How we interpret our experiences is what determines our truths
Questioning
Political Legitimacy; Hobbes versus Locke
· Reformation openly challenged authority of papacy and Roman Catholic Church
· Scientific Revolution challenged long-held theories about universe, ourselves, and the basis of all knowledge
· During 17th century political philosophy began to tackle question of who had the right to govern, and on what basis
Thomas Hobbes
· Political philosophy shaped by chaos after execution of King Charles the first
· Wrote Leviathan – explains beliefs for justification for any government
· Began arguments on government with imagined “state of nature”
o Refers to history prior to societies, organization, governments, or laws
· In the state of nature people were free, there were no restrictions, everyone must fend for themselves
· Believed that hums were selfish and aggressive by nature, and if left to own resources they would be in a constant state of conflict and chaos
· Life in the state of nature was “short, nasty, and brutish”
· Thus a state of peace is one in which there is law, people must agree to submit to the sovereign and their laws in return for peace
·
John Locke
· Used the idea of a “state of nature” for beginning of political philosophy
· Though over time, people willingly began to join together in societies to benefit from cooperation
· This cooperation lead to the development of rules and laws to govern peoples actions and governments to create the laws
· People would surrender some of their freedoms – known as “social contract”
· Rights not surrendered were: right to life, liberty, and property
· Power remains with the people and the government acts on their behalf; if not acting on their behalf the people can remove the government
·
The
The Age of Absolutism
Absolutism Defined
· In absolutist states, monarchs claimed to rule by divine light
· Not limited in actions by parliaments or representative bodies – controlled all competing interest groups and regulated all religious sects
· Success of an absolute monarch was their ability to gain control of the nobility which was the greatest threat to the Crown
· Absolute monarchs created permanent, standing armies recruited, paid, and trained by the state; employed secret police to watch over possibly troublesome people
· Louis the 14th à “The interests of the state come first. When one gives these priority, one labours for one’s own good. The advantage to the state redounds to one’s glory.”
· Louis the 14th exemplified the absolutist belief that the monarchy personifies the state
Foundations of
Absolutism in
· Louis the 14th didn’t create absolutism; he inherited it
·
During his fathers reign,
o Influenced the king to promote the French monarchy as the embodiment of the French state
o Laid the basis for French absolutism and French cultural dominance in Euro
o Challenged and alienated the nobility
o Divided country into 32 districts with intendants to ensure royal orders were enforced and the power of regional nobility was weakened
·
When Richelieu and the King died – Louis
the 14th replaced father, Mazarin replaced
· Mazarin tried to deal with financial problems by raising taxes – civil war Fronde – continued on and off for about 12 years
o Convinced Louis the only alternative to chaos/anarchy was absolute power
Louis ΧΙV, The Sun King
·
Reigned from 1643 to 1715
·
Created most centralized nation-state in Euro;
new sense of French nationhood
·
“Sun King” because he provided
light, warmth, and sustenance; seen as Apollo
Consolidation Power
·
Created standing army maintained in peacetime;
appointed Tellier secretary of war
·
Tellier created first modern army
o Permanent,
professional, commissariat, ambulance corps, uniforms, weapons standard,
rational recruitment, training, discipline, promotion
·
Day-to-day governing carried out by: Court of
State, Court of Finances, Court of Dispatches; Louis met with them at least
once a week (very involved)
·
Used bribery to guarantee provincial governors
sympathetic to him were elected
o Terms
of three years, laws must have his
approval
o Bureaucracy
staffed largely by upper middle class; deprived nobility
·
Efforts to centralize power under him –
challenged authority of Church; power struggle
·
Louis produced four articles that stripped
papacy of its power in
·
Louis won control over Catholic Church in
·
1685 – revoke Edict of
Colbert’s Economic Reforms
·
Colbert appointed controller-general by Louis
o Government
regulated economic activity based on premise that international power is a
product of its wealth; believe success depended on self-sufficiency
·
Encouraged new domestic industries, discouraged
imports
·
Created a powerful merchant marine; hundreds of
water vessels for tradeà resources
·
Robert Cavelier de La Salle claimed territory
along
· Colbert reduced income tax of the rich and increased it for the poor
o If the rich had more money they would spend more; benefit economy
· Marble, gold, chandeliers, gardens, huge windows, mirrors; new French Provincial style
· One of the most important tools in gaining control of the French nobility
Life at
·
Louis used
o Planned events constantly so that the nobility were kept busy
o Those
not at
· Louis surrendered almost all of his privacy to the state; except being seen without a wig – had sebaceous cysts
The Wars of Louis
ΧΙV
·
Four major wars of aggression during last four
decades of his reign; huge desire for land, wealth, glory
·
The War of Devolution (1667-1688) – minor
gains in attempt to gain Spanish Netherlands
·
1672 – Louis invaded
·
1689 –
·
War of the Spanish Succession; Louis attempted
to land claim to Spanish throne; 11 years of war, Grand Alliance defeated
French, forced to accept Peace of Utrecht
·
Wars left
The Legacy of Louis
ΧΙV
·
Created grandest court
·
Feudal lords and Catholic Church surrendered a
lot of power to king
·
·
People saw themselves as French, not just from a
certain region
·
Financing wars and costs of maintaining court at
o Created
crisis that the monarchy could not survive
Absolutism in
Peter the Great
·
Either think he was a superhero who transformed
·
Turned
·
Able to establish himself as the absolute
sovereign of
·
Began to reform
·
Chose to fill important posts on merit, not
lineage of rank
The Westernization of
·
Believed that the key to
·
Sent 250 Russians to visit Euro countries; learn
about manners, skills…
·
Travelled abroad as Peter Mikhailov
·
Learned a great deal and recruited over 750 to
serve in
·
Realized value in maintaining ties with Eastern
Euro and
·
Created schools to train specialists; minimum education
required to serve in government; education compulsory for the gentry
·
Encouraged Western dress, manners, men shave
their beards, changed title to emperor
Securing Power
·
Faced challenge of raising money to meet his
needs; increased taxes 550% in 1724 than in 1680; taxed almost everything
·
There was a plan to depose Peter and put his
sister on the thrown – Peter found out and had over a thousand streltsy
tortured and put on display
·
Sister and wife forced to become nuns for
sympathizing with rebels
The Legacy of Peter the Great
·
Peter the Great was involved in every aspect of
life; what people wore, read, ate…
The Triumph of the Constitution
·
In sharp contrast to absolute monarchy of
· 1529 – Henry the eighth forced to appeal to Parliament for divorce making Parliament stronger and setting precedents
·
· Absence of standing army – monarchy dependent on loyalty of militia controlled by the nobility
The Reign of James
Ι
·
Inherited financial problems as well as the
throne in 1603
·
Forced to appeal to Parliament for increase in
taxes by millions of pounds; granted only 200 000 pounds; had to find another
method
·
People had to pay for their children to marry,
sold titles, monopolies, forced people to lend money to Crown or face a fine
·
Very bright but fascinated by witches, lazy,
lavished money on court favourites
o Title
of “the wisest fool in Christendom”
·
In constant conflict with Parliament with
policies
Charles and the English Civil War
· Stubborn nature, refusal to compromise; earned Parliament’s dislike
· Eleven years of tyranny – Parliament refused to increase taxes
·
1629 Charles suspended Parliament –
brought
o war
in
· Once recalled, Parliamentarians tried to thwart the kings attempts to raise money
o Two years of conflict – tried to storm Parliament, a lot got away
· The ones who got away gather quick support for civil war between Royalists (supporters of monarchy) and Roundheads (supporters of Parliament)
· Charles was captured by Parliamentarians and refused to compromise
o Charged
him with treason and cut off his head –
·
Following this,
o Absence
of a monarch;
· After Cromwell’s death, there was no ruler à Charles ΙΙ invited back to the throne
· Ruled effectively despite pro-French and Catholic feelings
· Historical period with the return of the monarch to the throne is known as the Restoration
The Glorious Revolution
· James ΙΙ came to throne after death of Charles ΙΙ
· Made known he wanted to restore Roman Catholic faith and revive power of English monarch
o Some citizens opposed king, English people alienated
· Dutch monarch, William of Orange, asked by parliamentarians to seize throne
· William entered with 15 000 troops, James fled without resistance – Glorious Revolution
· William and Mary governed jointly
· So no attempts would be made to govern without Parliament, English passed Bill of Rights in 1689
o “That the pretended power of suspending of laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent of Parliament, is illegal”
Economic Change in
Seventeenth-Century
·
Beginning comprised of series of local economies
– independently striving for self-sufficiency
·
Stall-holders would sell surpluses made with
local materials in small towns
·
Projects to improve river navigation; no place
more than 120 km from sea or 35 km from river à facilitated
trade
·
Regions could now produce things that their
climatic conditions were good for
·
Revolution in retailing; shops like today
o Stout
goes and gets goods from various places and sells them paying for half in
advance and half after with large return
·
People would now favour market towns with
variety, these towns grew and prospered
·
Shift in urban economies – people go see
shows, dentists, lawyers…
·
Regional eco gave way to national eco
·
Urban centers reinvented to become centers of
retail, service, entertainment
Life in Seventeenth Century
Social Classes and Cultural Units
· English and all Euro societies had many distinct social classes
o The aristocracy, the landowning gentry, wealthy merchants/professionals, small property owners, wage-earning peasants, urban wage earners, and the destitute
· Acts acceptable in one class, bad in another; poor – rapid increase in unwed births
·
Beliefs in magic and witchcraft deeply embedded
in minds of most of the population in
Family Life
· Sources of data for historians: diaries, letters, legal papers like wills, birth/death certificates, baptism records, and contracts
o Newspapers, broadsides, almanacs, popular novels, poems, plays, architectural plans, folk customs and folk tales
· Small mother, father, children family not yet the norm; included all people under roof
· Little policing – family was agent of social control at village level; father kept tight control over young unruly people
Marriage Trends
· Had three purposes; continuity of the male line, preservation of the family property, acquisition of additional property or beneficial alliances
o To continue male line – as many children as possible for a male to survive
· Henry the eighth dismantled nunneries – non-married women 10% to 25%
·
New colonies in
Death: Life’s Constant Companion
· Diseases: smallpox, intestinal worms, diarrhea, insufficient milk, lead poisoning for children
· Middle/Upper classes hired wet nurses to breast feed
· Person and public hygiene of little concern; contaminated water and food
· Filth, disease, contamination, food shortages, poor medical practices, and wars made death central to life in 17th century
Western Art in the Seventeenth Century
Patrons and Patronage
· Artistic expressions reflects values, aspirations, thoughts, desires, fears, triumphs…
· Constrained and inspired by demands of their patrons; ignore the wishes of patrons you will be poor because they have money
· Baroque style dominated 17th century; reflected religious fervour; asymmetrical, dynamic showing dramatics and emotion
o Allegory, naturalism, violent scenes
·
Paralleled political developments as focus in
Euro politics went from Italian peninsula to
· Patrons: clergy of Catholic Church, absolute monarchs, wealthy merchants
o Influenced themes
Gianlorenzo Bernini
· One of the most admired and successful sculptors of baroque era
· Sculptures captured figures in intense action or emotion
o David
o The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
·
Louis 14th had him create numerous
works for
·
Bernini had so many works on the go that he
would design them, have his assistants make them, and he would do the finishing
touches
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
· Known for his art as well as his bad temper which got him in trouble with the law
· Had no preliminary drawings, he painted directly on the canvas
· Introduced type of naturalism or realism not yet seen in Italian painting
· Medusa is an example of his realistic style and fascination with violence
Artemisia Gentileschi
· Follower of Caravaggio
· Judith Slaying Holophernes; involves shadows, spot lighting, violent, twisting motion
· Shows her Judith’s determination to rid the Jews of an oppressor King of Babylon
· One of the first women artists to make mark on history of Western art
Rembrandt van Rijm
· Educated in Calvinist school – stressed study of the bible à upbringing seen in art
o Some of the most profound Christian images by a Protestant in 17th century
·
Moved to
o Patronage
in
· The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp; captured expressions, became history painting
· The Nightwatch; rejected traditional arrangements for portraits, gave equal prominence to all members of group – turned into moment in history
Baroque Music
Jean-Baptiste Lully
· Inventor of French opera, greatest French composer (Italian by birth)
· Worked for Mlle. Montpensier – danced
· Preformed for Louis 14th, was impressed, appointed composer of instrumental music
o Wrote instrumental music for ballets, gained importance, wrote entire ballets
· Appointed composer of chamber music for king
· Collaborated with playwright Moliere to produce comedic ballets – early form of French opera
· First full opera Cadmus et Hermione 1673; composed 13 more operas
· 1681 Lully was able to purchase the office of “secretary to the king” granting him noble rank
· Hurt toe in performance, gangrene set in, became ill, died…
Literature in the Seventeenth Century
John Dryden
·
Period of Restoration in
o Marks return to classicism, called neoclassicism; ordered, rational, simple
o Seen in arts, architecture, literature…
· Developed lucid clear prose that became model for all writing of the period and beyond
o Plain and practical, anyone could read it
· Created large body of poetry and prose which had classical themes
Moliere
· Most celebrated and controversial playwrights of 17th century
· Made fun of aristocrats in his plays – became target of threats on his life and person
· Received money from his deceased mothers estate à surrendered his claim to succeed in his fathers upholstery business
· Moliere and group of writers founded L’Illustre Theatre, rented indoor tennis court for theatrical performances
·
First performance for Louis 14th
almost disaster, preformed something for rural community instead, he liked it,
asked to stay permanently in
· 1650s entertained Parisian audiences
· Soon he didn’t have to rely on patronage or princes, plays became more satirical
· Jealous actor claimed he married his own daughter, Louis responded by becoming godfather of the child, and later provided him with a pension when accused of impiety
· Louis helped keep Moilere alive