Chapter Five

Revolution and Restoration 1789-1815

Before the Revolution

Europe in Transition

· Intellectuals talked of new age with ideas and promises of French Revolution

· End of 18^th century – Euro on road to revolutionary change in all aspects of life

· Perceptions of class, children, family, crime, punishment – altered by Enlightenment ideas

Communities

· France had many distinct communities; own issues, concerns, views

· All communities would unite in support or opposition of the revolution about to tear apart fabric of society

Rural Communities

· Hansel and Gretel gave insight into peasant world

· These fairy tales preserved rich oral tradition of Euro peasantry; illuminated life among poorest class pre-Industrial Revolution

· Hunger was a constant threat; witchcraft/superstition part of daily life for rural poor

· For the upper class the 18^th century was an Age of Reason

Poverty and Politics

· A reason for unease was increase in poor people in Euro; people needing work exceeded jobs; 80% of the population was peasants

· French peasants had to pay taxes, as well as the landowner (in cash or crops), the Catholic parish priest also wanted 1/10 of the craps

· Same thing occurred in England and Netherlands

The Urban Community

· Urban centers relied on rural communities for their growth; source of cheap unskilled labour

· Cities unhealthy to live in, high mortality rates

· Abandoned children were extremely common – full time job to deliver to poor house

· Suburbs housed the poor, cheap ins, and the noisy/offence trades like tanning

· City core – hierarchy; elite, professionals, leading business figures built apartments in city to carry out their business

· Feudalism largely determined social rural structure; Urban communities in Euro dominated by wealthy merchants who looked for ways to establish autonomy for city

· Lead to taxation, concept of public loans to finance city projects

· Symbiotic relationship b/w rural and urban communities most evident in 1780s

o Poor grain crops, looming national bankruptcy, rising food costs à hunger and discontent in cities and countryside of France

· Rural and Urban then shared drive to survive – united frustration against absolutist government of Louis the 16^th

The Intellectual Community

· Growing criticism of absolutist governments

· American Revolution initiated by colonial elite dissatisfied with govn’t in London…

· Political commentary frequently published

The Salon

· In homes of philosophers and intellectuals; people came to exchange views on politics, literature…

· Began in 17^th century France when a women became too ill to travel

· Casual atmosphere to mingle and converse freely; provided sheltered outlet for views that were condemned by courts of Euro

· Social equality promoted by the philosophes embraced in salons; class origins less important

· Philosophes wanted more women’s rights

· Salons element of transition from dominance of the upper-class culture to the more middle-class culture of 19^th and 20^th centuries

Social History

Good taste and Good Manners

· Having good taste became a new/important requirement of 18^th century culture

o In art, fashion, food, manners

· Eating changed; numerous courses with numerous dishes to be served

· People no longer shared utensils or shared from same plate

· John Trusler - The Honours of the Table – proper table manners

Science, Technology, and Society

· Kitchens had an array of equipment (eg. Finer production of flour – better quality bread)

· Winter feeding practices – cows didn’t have to be killed before winter and salted

· Appreciation of natural colour of foods properly cooked

· Emphasis on quality not appearance

The Pre-revolutionary Family

· Common for men of the 18^th century to carry on the belief that women were inferior to men; lacking ethics and reason

· Ideal woman: silent, obedient, subservient, modest, chaste

· Rousseau wrote about intelligent women in Emile

· Women in lower class sent to work as servants in wealthy households – little or no pay, wages sent to parents

· Sexual abuse was common in Euro; women had no legal protection

· When a servant girl became pregnant she would be fired and forced to fend for herself

· Feminine values and consciousness upheld by Catholicism

· Euro had amazing nursing service, French Sister of Charity, 1789

Marriage and Children

· People tended to marry late: average 27

· Infant mortality was high in upper class, higher in lower classes

· Surviving infancy was a challenge many did not make – diseases

· Those survived childhood of caught other illnesses or died in accidents; parents gave many sons the same name so that the chances of the name being carried on were high

· Hiring a wet nurse to breast-feed a child continued

· Love and affection was uncommon, often lead to physical abuse because the only attention a child would get was discipline

Education

· Rise in formal education

· England and France established schools to teach religion and literacy to poor children

· Prussia, first Euro state to institute compulsory education

· Still most education came from parents; boys go with father to fields, girls learned essentials of housekeeping

· By age of 12 boys may be apprenticed to a master to learn a trade, girls would be sent out as servants

Popular Culture in the Eighteenth Century

· Characterized by new ideas about politics, economics, morals, religion, nature of humanity

· Middle and upper classes spent time in salons and cafes; lower class did the same but in pubs

· Wine became the favourite drink in Euro; gin was the drink of the poor in England

· Many holidays for eating, drinking, dressing up, playing games; between spring sowing and summer harvest or after fall harvest

· Entertainment in lower classes included blood sports

· Torture of animals, especially cats, popular amusement in Euro

o By 18^th century such cruelties denounced

On The Eve Of The Revolution

Government in Society

· Wars and support for American Revolutionary War plus weak economy left French monarchy on verge of bankruptcy by 1788

· Louis the 16^th recalled Jacques Necker and the Estates-General

· Legislative body of ancient regime made up of three levels of society

o The First Estate – the clergy

o The Second Estate – the nobility

o The Third Estate – the commons

o The Fourth Estate – the press

· Estates-General had right to approve or veto new taxes or increases in taxes; Louis hoped that he would agree to increase taxes for minor political/constitutional reforms

o This gamble proved to be the end of the French monarchy

French Public Opinion on the Eve of the Revolution

· Many hoped for reformed constitutional monarchy

· Louis the 16^th brother said in 1788 “the state is in peril… a revolution in the principles of government is under way…”

· The prince’s comments show that at beginning of revolutionary process many in France opposed any basic changes to the government

· Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes wrote What Is The Third Estate? – the third estate was “everything”; national unity more important than estates and local interests

· The Crown called for statements of grievance to be drawn up by various entities

· Desire to express opinions lead to discussion clubs in major French cities

· Elections of deputies to the Estates-General were helt in March and April of 1789

The Year Of Liberty In France

The Estates-General: A Social Revolution

· Meeting of Estates-General at Versailles produced deadlock among 3 orders of National Assembly

· First and Second estates could outvote the third; thus the Third Estate decided to protest à Louis 16^th thought this was intolerable and locked them out of palace

· They found themselves locked out, took cover from rain in indoor tennis court; swore an oath on June 20^th, 1789 that deputies of the third estate along with sympathetic members of other estates, known as the Tennis Court Oath, stating they were the National Assembly of France

o Oath stated they would not dissolve until there was a constitution

· June 23^rd – King sent messenger to tell third estate to disperse because voting would continue

· Leading elected member announced they would only yield to force

· Court’s messenger turned to Assembly and stated “The nation is assembled here, and receives no orders”

· This exchange between the King’s messenger and parliamentarians has been said to be the effective end of the legal authority of the old monarchical order

o National will was set above the orders of the king

Urban Violence: The Storming of the Bastille

· July 14^th 1789 – crowd attacked the Bastille (Paris state prison)

· Bastille was symbol of oppressive order of ancien regime – held prisoners who were sent there without trial but solely at the whim of authorities

o Actually only held 7 criminals kept in better conditions

· Bastille fell to craftsmen, journeymen, shopkeepers, leaders who represented cross section of the now politicized Paris population

· Political power now in the streets of Paris; future Republican governments of France later proclaimed July 14^th a national holiday

Country Protest: The Great Fair

· 1789 – peasant dissatisfaction with payment/services by landowners coming from countryside

· Peasants began to attack castles and burn records of feudal dues, rent payments, and taxation

· At Versailles – the Assembly stayed in session, abolished many feudal rights

o Made the rural economy more efficient

o Commoners still thought that nobles who profited were enemies of social change

· By June 1790 – nobility also abolished – strong desire for equality among French

Government Moves from Versailles to Paris

· October 5^th – “October Days” demonstration by Parisians motivated by fear of lack of bread; women marched to Versailles to protest against high food prices

· Burst into royal apartments to take the king from bad company of Queen Mary Antoinette; took flour and lead royal family back to Tuileries Palace

· End of 1789 – Estates-General became National Assembly, charged with writing the constitution

· King not in power; constitutional monarchy must have his approval of what Assembly decided for it to be fully legal

· Nobles became anxious and emigrated; clergy aware that property/organizations at risk; people worried about level of violence

A Constitutional Revolution: The Constituent Assemble 1789-1791

· Renewed French legal system, wrote constitution, recognized France into 83 departments, confiscated church estates, set up “Civil Constitution of the State”

· Big conflict over abolition for French Church to obey the Pope

Mirabeau

· Imprisoned because he disobeyed beliefs of his father; in prison he wrote pamphlets denouncing arbitrary arrest – showed views on justice and constitutional govn’t

· Elected member of the Assembly 1789

· Urged royal to accommodate Revolution

· Death marked transition from conservative radicalism

· Symbolized attempt to set up liberal constitutional monarchy in France

Maximilien de Robespierre

· Aimed to establish a republic

· Revolution began to take place with two dominant political groups

o The Girondins – didn’t support extending political right to the working class; found support from Jacobins (Parisian club supported radical reform and harsh measures

· Early French Revolution marked desire for end to social privilege

· 1792 legalism broke down into state terrorism by Committee of Public Safety; those who disagreed with policies brought before revolutionary tribunal and were forced to submission or executed

Change and Continuity in Revolutionary Times

· With outbreak of Revolution ordinary people began to take place in politics by electing reps to Estates-General

· Between 1789-1794 greatest assaults on privacy by interventionist state in history of Western civilization

· Privacy associated with secrecy and anti-revolutionary activities; anyone with private interests was working against the “general will” of Republic of Virtue & nation

The Revolutionary Wars

· Beginning of revolution other powers of Euro were not very upset by the reforms

· Concern did mount – Alsatians declared themselves French, Avignon annexed at request of inhabitants who wanted to be part of France

· Foreign governments thought the Revolution was out of control

· Austrian ultimatum to France rejected and France declared war on Austrin April 20 1792

· Struggle with Austria brought about War of the First Coalition (Britain, Holland, Spain, Sardinia, Naples) 1792 – 1797

· 1793 French at war with Austria, Prussia, Britain, Holland, Spain; France was very expansionist and wanted territorial gain

· The series of wars didn’t end until 1815 with defeat of Napoleon in Battle of Waterloo

· Tuileries Palace invaded by a mob of sans-culottes June 1792; August armed insurrection by Jacobins on palace when royal family taken into custody and king suspended from duties

· The following month had no clear political power; authority claimed by municipality of Paris, especially by Jacobins

The September Massacres

· With power of Jacobins came the September Massacres – series of attacks on the prisons in Paris, five days with more than 1200 killed and mutilated

Political Organization: From Monarchy to Republic

· 1792 – Legislative Assemble dissolved and the Convention convened

· First act was abolition of the monarchy; Prussian invasion stopped at Valmy

· Convention received news of victory on Sept 21^st * see picture of The Convention 1782 on page 188

The Execution of Louis the 16^th

· French happy with news of victory at Valmy – spread news of news of new republic by the Convention

· Documents were now dated “Year One of the Republic”

· Louis 16^th sentenced to death and was decapitated

· My his execution – Jacobins showed they were determined to defy Euro and break with the past

· France became threatened by foreign armies and civil war

· 1792 + France foreign relations took ideological tone between capitalist and communist states

· 1793 – Girodin deputies arrested for treason, some condemned to death; showed being a revolutionary deputy was dangerous

· Their elimination left Jacobins the ruling force in the capital

Revolutionary Names and Symbols

· More efforts to eradicate sings of the ancient regime and to impose a rational world

· Street signs in Paris whose names were after saints or monarchy were renamed

· Place Louis 15^th became Place do la Revolution then Place de la Concorde

· Churches given new names, revolutionaries renamed themselves, changes in the measure of space

· Measurement of time divided into unites that were “rational”, calendar composed of twelve months with 3 ten day weeks (extra days in year for celebrating)

· Fall of monarchy 1792 was used for a reference point for the start of time

· Rational thoughts/beliefs in order from scientific revolution and Enlightenment put into practice during period of the French Revolution

The Reign of Terror

· Leaders in Paris started reign of violence against enemies of the Revolution; 40000

· The Terror was result of revolutionary system with two committees

o The Committee of Public Safety (fought food shortages, enemies…)

o Committee of General Security

· August 1793 – mass levy of men to fight was decreed; famous example of the elements of the modern concept of total war – the whole population involved

· Robespierre – ideas on democracy without accommodation/compromise; he wanted everyone who was excluded previously from politics to take part

Women and the Revolution

· Philosophe Condorcet said that women ought to vote as well as men; made clear property owners, no matter what sex, should vote – few had this view

· Many women tried to establish women’s clubs; Belgian Theroigne de Mericourt was very interested in the debates at the Estates-General

· Women’s clubs for political discussion closed down in autumn of 1793 and leading women were executed

The Final Thoughts of Madame Roland

· Supporter of the cause of liberty; surrounded herself with idealists; welcomed the French Revolution; disappointed when events took bloody turn during the Terror

· Killed by the Jacobins – right before decapitated she declared “O Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!”

· Revolution of 1789 ended political supremacy of old court culture (women were often influential); replaced with assembly of men to discuss male rights in The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

· People didn’t think women could take part in politics because they were influenced by the priests and counter-revolutionaries

· Revolution – didn’t change patriarchal attitudes of traditional Euro society, dispelled any hope of women advancing into political life

Robespierre’s Demise

· 1793, 1794 food shortages; 1793 deputation in Paris called on the Convention to legislate lower break prices

· Robespierre struck at economic radicals who wanted price controls

· Announced that another purge of enemies of Revolution was coming; deputies had motion removed and voted to have him + associates arrested

· Robespierre and his brother sent to guillotine

After Thermidor

· Robespierre’s death marked end of radical phase of revolutionary government

· “Thermidorian reaction” – political class struggle take more conservative regime

· South France – attacks on those who were militants during Robespierre’s Terror – the “White Terror”

· Many churches, cafes, theatres reopened à overall relaxation of revolutionary fervour

· 1794-1795 – little/expensive food – paper money of Revolution losing value

· April 1, 1795 – revolutionary militants surged into Convention and demanded bread and 1793 constitution

· Violent demonstrations in May in Paris called Germinal-Prairial which were the last spontaneous uprisings during the Revolution

· People who dreamed of an egalitarian society were arrested and executed – Francois Emile Babeuf

· With fall of Jacobin radicals came more conservative and middle-class regime known as the Directory

· The Directory – economic inflation and speculation, failed to reconcile liberty with the need for order

· Resisted royalists and leftists but didn’t govern effectively; also undertook military activities in Italy

The Age of Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte

· Symbolized order after revolutionary decade

· Enrolled in military colleges; joined revolutionary club in town of Valence

· Did not resist the Revolution

· At time of Terror involved in attack on Mediterranean port of Toulon – his success won him praise and recognition

· The Thermidorians became apprehensive of vengeful royalists –

· When army came up against mob of rightist demonstrators – Napoleon got him men to fire into the mob to subdue the up rising (known as “whiff of grapeshot”

· Thermidorian politician, Paul de Barras, decided to use his influence to further Napoleon’s career – appointed Commander-in-Chief of the French Army invading Italy

Conflict and War: Italy and the Revolution

· French invasion of Italy in 1796 – Italy drawn to notion that the armies may carry message of Revolution, purify corrupt feudalism, and perhaps establish unity

· With a few more military successes – Napoleon proclaimed Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy on Dec 27, 1796

o Guaranteed Italians freedom of press, right to petition/education/equality before the law

· October 1797 – French defeated Austria and agreed to Treaty of Campo Formio

· French captured Rome and went to establish a Neapolitian republic

· 1799 – French revolts in northern Italy and Naples; Army of the Holy Faith massacred in Naples; ghetto of Sienna sacked and 3 Jews burned alive; Tuscany/Umbria peasants attacked French sympathizers in name of Catholicism

· By March 1799 the French were expelled from Italy

Redefining the State: Napoleonic Government

· Napoleon took power in France 1799 by coup d’etait known as 18 Brumaire; a month after return from unsuccessful Egyptian campaign

· Campaign important – they documented monuments, brought back treasure, discovered Rosetta Stone which allowed Egyptian hieroglyphics to be deciphered

· Constitution of Year 8 – Napoleon strengthened centralization of govn’t in France – 3 consuls of executives, the first serving for 10 years

· New assemblies – Tribunate and the Legislative Body; complex election system for men over 21

· Napoleon dominated the government as First Consul

The Concordat

· Napoleon did things to bring stability back to France

· 1801 – concluded accord with Pop Pius 7^th; Concordat of July 1801 recognized Catholicism as religion of majority and agreed to pay parish clergy

· Freedom to practice other religios upheld

· 1807 – Nap held meeting with Jewish rabbis about relationship to French state – aim to remove friction b/w government and religion

· Nap set up system of lycees under military discipline, also municipal colleges; graduation from system required to enter Big Schools in Paris (engineers/teachers)

· May 1804 – Nap proclaimed “hereditary emperor of the French”; crowned and was to govern with sole aim of interest, happiness, glory of the French people

The Code Napoleon

· Napoleon set up State Council which drafted legislation, reorganized civil code known as Code Napoleon (equality before the law and in taxation)

· Napoleonic laws remained basic law of France and places like Quebec

The Napoleonic Wars

· French army had 228000 men under command of aristocratic officers

· The decree of August 23, 1793 requisitioned all males of the nation opening the army to all

· Under the Directory, a conscription of law made all French men between 20 and 25 subject to military service

· 1800 Janoleon defeated Austrians and conquered Italy

· 1801 Treaty of Luneville ended war b/w France and Austria

· Napoleon resumed war with Britain in 1803; destroyed by Lord Nelson and British fleet at Battle of Trafalgar

· Napoleons greatest triumph was at Austria in 1805; defeated combined forces of Austria and Russia – Austria to grant territorial concessions in Germany and Italy sign Treaty of Pressburg

· Napoleon defeated Prussians at Jena, smashed Austrian armies, burned Moscow

· Holy Roman Empire eradicated – created Confederation of the Rhine, sped unification of Germany…

· Napoleon’s dream of a “continental system” failed

The End of Napoleon: A Search For Order

· Russian campaign of 1812 weakened his forces

· Russian, Prussian, Austrian armies combined at “Battle of the Nations”

· April 1814 – Napoleon give up and exiled to small island

Exiled

· Napoleon faced defeat in 1814; agreed to abdicate in exchange for small island

· On island he – encouraged road construction, tried to stimulate economy, improve fishing, modernize agriculture à still accomplished little

· Tried to revitalize mining industry but stole much of the money and increased land tax

· Feb 26, 1815 under absence of his English custodian (Colonel Campbell) – snuck away from Elba back to mainland and traveled where he knew he had supporters

Restoring International Order: The Congress of Vienna

· Congress of Vienna ended Napoleonic adventure

· Congress assembled in Sept 1814 and was dominated by power that defeated Napoleon – Russia, Great B, Prussia, Austria – Louis 16^th brother claimed throne

· Restoration lost support which helped Napoleon in an attempt to make a comeback

· June 19, 1815 – Vienna Treaty: Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, France, Spain, Portugal, other small powers… Napoleon created idea of Euro federation

· Napoleon exiled again to island of St. Helena and died in 1821

Social History: Living The Revolution

Private Life and the Revolution

· Invasion of public privacy during Revolution seen in clothing – by April 1793 all French citizens had to wear the tricolour cockade

· Flattened hair, skirts less flared, lower heels, looser and lighter showed more skin (w)

· Letters ended with “farewell and fraternity”

· Revolutions motto “Liberty, equality, and fraternity”; cards/chess renamed with this

· Revolutionaries stressed childbearing and motherhood; all children given equal inheritance; illegitimate children full status; state controlled marriage; divorce

Religion and the Revolution

· Church lands confiscated, bishops elected, clergy require to swear oaths of allegiance

· Attempts to reduce role of Catholic Church in French society failed because women kept faith alive during Revolution/restoration

Two Revolutionary Artists: David and Beethoven

Jacques-Louis David

· Art closely associated with French Revolution – rejected rococo; wanted his art to teach a lesson/moral

· Became official painter for the Emperor Napoleon

· Classicist; devotion to truth, virtue, morality also romantic

· Classical/romantic styles continued through 18^th century

Ludwig von Beethoven

· In early 20s began to go deaf

· Themes in music centered around humanity’s triumph over despair and conflict

· Nine symphonies in total

· Another main theme was freedom from oppression

· Music showed cross between structured/intellectual 18^th century music and passionate music of 19^th century romanticism

· By end of career, romantic movement taken over all aspects of Western arts