Chapter Eight

Nations in Upheaval: Europe 1850-1914

The Rise of the Nation-State

• Concept behind change was nationalism – fueled by leaders driven for power
• 1871 consolidation/unification created modern Germany/Italy – altered Euro powers
• Struggle b/w states for land/wealth happened mostly outside Euro
• Leaders had to harness people’s pride in pursuit of national objectives

France: The Role of Key Individuals

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

• France was one of the only countries that was not a monarchy – it was republic (power held by the people or elected reps)
• Louis ruled as president and then emperor – Paris was restored as diplomatic/cultural capital of Euro
• Prussia’s victory over France caused Napoleon to an end – marked rise of modern Germany as dominant power in Central Europe
• Louis’ election as president of Second Republic in 1848 elevated him from political obscurity
• After June Days French electorate split between monarchists and republicans – voted for Louis
• The constitution limited Louis to only four years in presidency with no re-election – tried to alter it
• Louis wanted a coup d’etat – introduced new form of direct vote (plebiscite) and on two occasions he was supported 1851/1852; people were happy with the symbol of his democracy
• Legislative reform increased development of joint-stock and limited-liability companies
• Second Empire created Credit Mobiler – financed industrial development
• By 1860 political criticism reawakened; Louis introduced new policies 1860-1869

Conflict and War

• Louis wanted to restore French prestige in Euro – Challenged Russia
• Crimean War of 1854-1856 fought to resist Russian expansion – politically Russians the losers
• Peace Congress in Paris 1856 restored Paris as diplomatic center in Euro

Italy: The Role of Key Individuals

• Struggle to unify Italy (Risorgimento) – nationalism and realism came into conflict not harmony
• Italian nationality was product of Italian nationalists who sought to create a new nation
• After 1815 small secret societies (Carbonari) planned outbreaks against Austrian rule in north, restored Bourbon in Naples, administrative corruption in papal states
• 1820-1821, 1831 attacks isolated and largely futile attacks on entrenched authorities

Guiseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi

• Mazzini (after failed 1831 uprisings) – personified romantic revolutionary nationalism in Euro
• Founded Young Italy society in Marseilles, France
• Publicized goals of Italian nationalism and aimed to unite principals of nationalism/liberalism
• Uprising in Rome made Mazzini president of a radical, democratic republic
• To restore Pope to Rome, Naples, Austria, France intervened against Republic – defense lead by Garibaldi
• Garibaldi led 10 000 irregulars (Red Shirts) in defense but were forced to abandon the city – 1849 Republic of Venice surrendered to the Austrians
• Count Camillo Cavour joined forces with France against Russian in Crimean War and later with Prussia against Austria – managed to have Italian question discussed at Paris Peace Congress
• 1860 unification of Northern Italy, except for France
• Red Shirts defeated army of Bourbon king, Francis 2^nd – then invaded mainland and captured Naples
• Garibaldi in the south and Cavour in the north united on Cavour’s terms in 1861 – still incomplete
• 1866 Italy supported Prussia in war against Austria and received Venice
• 1870 Napoleon pulled French out of Rome and Italian troops occupied it, the Pope retreated and Rome became capital of fully united Italy in 1871

Modern Germany: The Role of Key Individuals

• The unification of Germany came from an exercise in realpolitik
• German confederation brought together 29 states
• 1834 the Zollverein brought northern states into closer economic association
• 1840s and 1850s weakened parochialism and isolated nature and created a more unified nation-state
• In meeting in Frankfurt Assembly, “Greater Germans” wanted Austria included and “Lesser Germans” wanted Austria excluded and looked to Prussian leadership
• Failures at Assembly and reassertion of royal autocracy in Berlin/Vienna 1848-1849 brought end to liberalism/nationalism in German unification

Count Otto von Bismarck

• Supporter of Prussian monarchy against liberal nationalists of 1848 – agent of German unification
• Famous speech to finance committee of Prussian diet on Sept 29, 1862…

Conflict and German Unification

• 1864 Denmark resurrected claim to Schlewig/Holstein – German nationalists called for action
• Bismarck arranged for Austrian and Prussian military intervention – Prussia dominated over Denmark
• Bismarck proposed reorganization of German confederation
• Austrians thought they would automatically win; Prussia deployed new tech to achieve victory
• June-Aug 1866 Austro-Prussian War over – Bismarck reformed German confederation
• Peace of Prague 1866 – end to tussle b/w Austria/Prussia in German confederation
• Venice ceded to kingdom of Italy; new constituted North German confed excluded Austria, included Prussia (most powerful player in new confederation); 4 South German states outside North German confederation signed military alliance with Prussia
• May 1870, Napoleon had another victory in a plebiscite – Bismarck saw danger and prepped for confrontation with France

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

• originated in dispute of succession to the Spanish throne
• 1868 revolution in Spain, Queen Isabella 2^nd abdicated and thrown offered to distant relative of Wilhelm the first of Prussian – Prussian ally in Spain caused fear in France
• Pressed released inflamed French opinion on the meeting with King Wilhelm 1^st and to defend the nations honour Napoleon 3^rd declared war against Prussia on July 19^th, 1870
• Prussians achieved victory in Franco-Prussian War and captured Napoleon 3^rd and 100 000 French soldiers in 1870 which lead to collapse of the Second Empire
• Treaty of Frankfurt 1871 – provinces of Alsace/Lorraine were ceded to Germany; France had to pay 5 billion francs and endure German occupation for 3 years it took to pay off
• In Hall of Mirrors (seat of former Sun King) King William the 1^st proclaimed German Emperor over a unified nation

The Austrian Empire: An Anomaly in Europe

• After revolution of 1848-1849 Hapsburg monarchy appeared victorious over forces of nationalism/liberalism – became anachronism and thrown together as part of Hapsburg dynasty

Czarist Russia: Reform and Repression

• Caught b/w preserving conservative aristocratic order/need for economic & industrial reform
• Most significant change was emancipation of 22.5 mil serfs in 1861 – paid indemnity to state
• Peasants having to produce more grain, for more people, at cheaper price – violent protests
• First wave of industrialization in 1860s; growth of cities and new working class (exploited)
• Czar Alexander 2^nd – reform and reverted to policy of repression = ↑ discontent
• Alexander assassinated 1881 – produced prolonged repression under Alexander 3^rd

Developments in Political Thought: The Advent of Democracy

• Democracy emerged and was being adopted by various countries
• 1871 German Empire voted on democratic adult male suffrage; 1867 Brit urban male householders could vote; 1914 Russia/Austria universal male suffrage
• Bismarck and Disraeli granted cote to working class

France: The Third Republic

• Challenges: antagonism b/w Paris and provinces; state repression of protesters; monarchs trying to reinstate authoritarian government; anti-Semitism
• Post-collapse of Napoleons Second Empire, Third Republic elected (Paris under siege for 4 months)
• Elections returned monarchist majority prepared to accept German terms of peace; govn’t approved landlords’ claim for back rent during siege
• 1871 Paris Commune created – killed 100 hostages + Archbishops; protests stopped 20-25 000 killed
• The monarchist majority of Republic had trouble finding a king…
• 1879 General Patrice MacMahon failed in trying to protect royalists by dismissing govn’t and influencing election
• Second coup failed 1889 when Boulanger tried to restore Bonapartist empire
• Blame fell of Jews for shortcomings of the nation

The Dreyfus Affair

• Anti-Semitism reached huge proportions in 1898-1899, divided French society in affair 1894-1906
• Dreyfus (Jewish officer of French General Staff) court-martialed for passing secrets to Germany
• Other charges against General Starr, forged evidence against Dreyfus; French divided
• Dreyfus acquitted and re-admitted to army
• Socialists of French left began to revive in 1880s and came to support Republican institutions
• The right minority failed to dismantle Republic and Republic lay in electoral support

Bismarck’s Germany 1871-1890

• Constitution of German Empire of 1871 was symbolic of democracy – parliament limited powers
• 1870 Bismarck’s strongest opposition Catholic or Center Party – countered by policy of Kulturkampf
• Kulturkampf unsuccessful – Catholic party got stronger; Bismarck turned attention now to socialists
• SDP formed in 1875 argued to secure political and social reforms; quickly built support in work-class
• 1878 Bismarck passed law that declared socialism an enemy of the state…
• To transfer public support to himself in 1881 and 1888 introduced universals sickness/accident insurance and old-age pensions
• Young Kaiser Wilhelm 2^nd dismissed his aged chancellor in 1890; 1890 + militant nationalism united German people

Britain 1867-1894: Disraeli and Gladstone

• Brit had peaceful govn’t and democracy; mid-1860s issue of vote rose again measured in stages
• 1867 PM Benjamin Disraeli passed Second Reform Act – vote to male urban working householders
• 1884 PM William Gladstone – vote to male householders in rural constituencies
• Disraeli backed Ottoman Empire in war with Russia
• Scottish campaign of 1879 Gladstone stopped in towns delivering speeches condemning immorality and costs of Disraeli’s policy
• Second campaign 1880 electorate tossed out Conservatives and Gladstone/Liberals got majority
• 1886 Gladstone introduced Irish Home Rule bill and split Liberal Party → Conservatives dominated

The Road to War: 1900-1914

• Spread of industrialization and eco comp b/w Euro states → arms race and diplomatic alliances
• John A. Hobson – The Psychology of Jingoism – nationalism became inverted patriotism
• Brit, rivals with Germany, fostered constitutional crisis – The People’s Budget 1909 put taxes on inherited wealth; House of Lords defeated Budget and brought down government

Nationalism and the Origins of World War One

• Aggressive nationalism was one of the root causes for the war- especially in the Balkans
• Balkan Wars in 1912-1913 meant ambitions of nationalists were unresolved
• Serbian nationalist (Gavrilo Princip) assassinated Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife on June 28^th, 1914

Society in Modern Europe

The Rise of a Dominant Middle Class

• Industrialization accelerated in second half of 19^th century; ↑ population/economic growth
• Standard of living improved in Euro 1850-1914; 1873-1896 Great Depression Years still improvement
• 1890-1914 prices rose again and middle class benefited instead of working class
• Distinctive feature of 19^th cent was rise of middle class as result of Industrial Rev. and shift from elitist society to mass culture
• Size/importance/self importance of middle class grew – challenged society
• Emerging middle class based values on ability to live a Christian life w/o trappings of nobility
• Strict sense of morally acceptable/respectable behaviour was hallmark of Victorian Age 1837-1901

Social Organization in the Nineteenth Century

Popular Culture

• Differences in disposable income and taste produced two cultures
• Affluent elite of “classes” – other was called “masses”
• Popular institutions: art galleries, museums, libraries, theatres, operas, concert halls, orchestras…
• Technological innovations: printing/publishing – books cheaper
• Leisure: short travels on railway; travel agent Thomas Cook
• Entertainment: growth of mass-circulation of tabloids

Technology and Society: The Second Industrial Revolution

• Second rev. 1880-1939 characterized by breakthroughs and new production and labour
• New uses for steam = faster railway production
• Bicycle, electric streetcars
• New sources of energy: electricity, refined petroleum
• Japan became first non-Euro state to join industrialized nations; Germany/USA surpassed GB
• Larger corporations began to be involved in all aspects of production – dominated whole sectors of economy and interrelated with financial institutions and linked to political leaders
• New machines increase the number of factory-made products (sewing machine)

The Evolving World of Women

• Feminist movements result of dissatisfaction with subordinate status of women rooted in tradition and enforced by law
• ↑ middle class, ↑ state education, new forms of employment for women, ↑ leisure time, eased restrictions on women’s lives in and out of home = women face-to-face with inequality

Feminist Movements across Europe

• Cry of suffragists – “votes for women” denying the vote to women was the biggest inequality
• 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst and daughter launched suffrage society in Brit: Women’s Social and Political Union – became known as “suffragettes”
• Questioned politicians, rallied, disrupted political meetings = police arrests and further demonstrations
• Hunger strikes, violence against property, buildings set fire, paintings slashed – suicide of Emily Davison
• Liberal government remained unmoved

Urban Communities and Trade Unionism

• Law/administration based on gender and social class; to change things change wages at work place or become active politically
• For better conditions people created unions which spread among semiskilled
• Extent of unionization varied according to level of industrialization

Developments in Political Thought

• Socialism directly addressed political needs of trade unionists and working people
• Karl Marx had a strong influence – industrial capitalism would expand and draw ↑ people to system of wage labour; conflict between employees and employers
• Marx helped create the First International Workingmen’s Association in 1864 (international organization of socialists) – disbanded with defeat and collapse of the French
• Second International in 1889
• 1889 German socialist Eduard Bernstein proposed socialism could be won slowly by gradually through elected governments slowly implementing socialist measures – divided Second International
• Bernstein lost debate with Second International
• Social Democratic Party in German was most successful with largest party in Reichstag 1912
• Jean Jaures became leading French socialist and orator of late 19^th early 20^th centuries built popular working class; campaigned against militant nationalism; assassinated by nationalist
• Independent Labour Party created in 1900 fought election trying to secure labour law/social reform

The Revolution in Russia, 1905

• Socialist debate between revolution/revisionism in 1905; conflicting policies of industrialization and political repression = revolutionary explosion
• 2^nd industrialization wave under Sergey Witte – caused ↑ working class and clandestine revolutionary activity
• Russian Social Democratic Party (later the Bolsheviks) + others debated on revisionism; 1902 leading militant Valdimir Ilich Ulyanov published pamphlet What is to be Done?
• 1905 in a revolution + economic slump = Russian defeat by Japan 1904-5 = political crisis
• Crisis + rural unrest caused Nicholas 2^nd to create a Duma (parliament)
• Social revolutionaries tried to continue their campaign and crushed by the army 1905
• More severe crisis brought on with stress of was – full scale revolution in 1917

Developments in Religious Thought

• England 1851 only 50% of pop attended church
• Catholic countries led by the Pope pronounced themselves as opponent of secularism/modernization
• Syllabus of Errors 1864 Pope Pius 9^th rejected idea that Roman Pontiff can come to modern terms
• 1880/90s advocates of social Catholicism in France/Germ developed social reform programs addressing the working class
• New climate more accepting of social legislation and democratic socialism – people still divided

Developments in Scientific Thought

The New Physics

• Isaac Newton’s laws of motion created vision of ordered universe – Newtonian universe scrutinized
• Marie Curie worked on radium/radioactivity
• Max Planck explained properties of atomic particles in quantum physics
• Albert Einstein theory of relativity – time and space dependent of frame of reference of observer
• E=mc² equivalence of matter and energy

Philosophy and Society

• Artists, scientists, intellectuals began to question certainty of reason
• Established framework for more troubled, skeptical, disordered world

Friedrich Nietzsche

• Questioned emphasis on reason in Western civilization
• Phrase “God is dead” challenged received wisdom of Christianity and that humans could only find meaning through human spirit
• Richard Wagner artist who created work of nationalism using Nietzsche’s ideas to justify Hitler and Third Reich
• Emile Durkheim explored sources of collective consciousness; argued that modern/industrial society could create excessive individualism and be dangerous to mental/social health; Max Weber similar

Family Life in the Nineteenth Century

• First half of century bourgeois women often involved in family business keeping books
• By 1850/60s businesses grew and bourgeoisie didn’t live near family business so women stayed home
• Urban working class women took children with them everywhere, did household chores, must earn supplementary income (cleaning others houses)
• Women began to get exploited by sewing garments in factories

Childhood

• 19^th cent. children the center of Euro families – concentration on education; natural breast feeding
• France 1841 law limiting number of hours a child can work in a factory
• Birth still traditionally given at home and it was announced by the father at the town hall
• Three phases of childhood: early childhood, childhood proper, adolescence
• 8 was the age of reason – play more active role; 15 sent to schools

Western Art of the Nineteenth Century

Realism

• Interest in science/technology overcame spirituality – search for truth by recording the factual

Jean-Francois Millet

• Depicted working people and peasants
• Conveys admiration through sculpture-like figures
• Work reflected socialist ideas associated with political climate of the time

Honore Daumier

• Used satire to point out social ills; skilled draughtsman and caricaturist
• Depicted lower class as he saw it: victims of industrialized society slowly dehumanizing masses

Gustave Courbet

• Represented French society as he saw it – dark, somber canvases
• Burial at Ornans exemplifies vigorous style

Edouard Manet

• One of the founders of Impressionism
• New perspective on life through use of bright, heave planes of light – detached, distanced view of humanity and nature

The Impressionists

• Tried to depict contemporary life through interest in science and study of light

Claude Monet

• Painted many of his subject up to forty times over, each time from same point of view but different light conditions and atmosphere
• Used complementary colours and used think/textured brush strokes

Post-Impressionists

Georges Seurat

• Practiced pointillism – uses small dots of colour to create larger forms

Paul Cezanne

• Classical approach using geometrical forms; still life genre

Vincent van Gogh

• Brushwork shows restless, frenzied spirit
• Through expressive colour and textured brushwork – complex, intelligent, tortured human

Literature in the Nineteenth Century

• Literature reflected deep desire to solve problems facing the new, prosperous industrial age
• Explored conflict with religion, science, negative effects of imperialism
• Victorian poetry explored difficult social and moral realities

Alfred Lord Tennyson

• Exemplified Victorian era
• Poem In Memoriam – records his reaction to death of close friend Arthur Hallam
• Interested in myth - The Lady of Shalott

Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barret Browning

• 44 sonnets written to Robert – Sonnets from the Portuguese
• Robert’s work reflects typical Victorian concerns

Charles Dickens

• Novels provide revealing social commentaries
• Criticized social injustices that poor/working class was subjected to in industrial England

Thomas Hardy

• Focused on life in rural England – explored humanity’s passions/problems through idea of a hero/heroine struggling helplessly against the hand of fate

George Bernard Shaw and Henrik Ibsen

• Both playwrights
• Shaw satirized societies through comedy full of black humour
• Ibsen’s plays explored darker aspects of human nature